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scientific manuscript paper writing service

Scientific Writing

For the scientific enterprise to be successful, scientists must clearly communicate their work.  Scientists constantly share their ideas and results with other scientists, encouraging critical review and alternative interpretations from colleagues and the entire scientific community.  Communication, both oral and written occurs at every step along the research path.  Preliminary results are often presented to co-workers at laboratory group meetings; at later stages, scientists may report the results of their research at a scientific meeting.  The final research is written up as a scientific manuscript using a standard paper format, and is submitted for publication in a scientific journal.  The final publication is always peer-reviewed, and it’s publication provides a contribution to the current scientific knowledge and promotes additional research.

 

A scientific manuscript usually includes the following:  Title, Abstract (a short summary of the paper), an Introduction (background and significance of the problem), a Materials and Methods section (report of exactly what you did), a Results section (presentation of data), a Discussion section (interpretation and discussion of results), and Literature Cited (books and articles referenced in the paper).

 

The best way to learn how to write a scientific paper is to READ as many as you can.  During the course of the semester you will have a chance to practice writing some parts of a manuscript, but that is no substitute for seeing as many examples as you can in the primary literature.  For one lab this semester you will be expected to write a full manuscript.  Thus, if you have not already done so READ SOME PEER-REVIEWED SCIENTIFIC JOURNALS.  Not only will you start an extremely useful habit as a biologist, but it will also give you a feel for how different sections of a scientific paper are written.

 

TITLE PAGE

The title page should be simple, containing the title, author first and last names, and their affiliations. See the generic example below. This should be centered on the page. Do not add fancy formatting to the title page.

 

Title

Your name (1st author), names of lab partner(s) (2nd, 3rd, 4th authors), and instructor (last author).

Institution and department where work was completed

 

TITLE

The title should be fewer than ten words and should reflect the factual content of the paper. Scientific titles are not designed to catch the reader’s fancy (although, if appropriate, a bit of jazz never hurt). A good title is straightforward and uses keywords that researchers in a particular field will recognize.

 

ABSTRACT

This section should clearly summarize your entire paper.  It should contain a brief introduction, a brief mention of your methodology, a clear statement of your results, and a taste of your discussion (empty sentences such as “The results are discussed” are useless).   It should be no more 200 words. It is usually easiest to write this last.   As a suggestion, try writing one or two key sentences from each section, then spend some time making those 4-8 sentences flow together as a unified paragraph.

 

 

 

INTRODUCTION

The introduction has two functions: 1) to provide the context for your investigation, and 2) to state the question asked and the hypothesis tested.  The introduction should begin by reviewing background information that will enable the reader to understand the objective of the study and the significance of the problem.  You should also relate the problem to the larger issues in the field; i.e. think about the bigger question.  For example, one could be studying variation in male cricket mating calls, but the bigger question relates to sexual selection and the evolution of sexual signaling in general. Many of the ideas and information in the introduction will not be your own – you will be describing previous work on the topic!  NEVER quote information from another paper.  Always paraphrase.  All sources of information MUST be referenced and included in the Literature Cited section.

 

The introduction usually flows from broad (what is the big question and previous information?) to narrow (your specific question) and ends with a clearly stated question and hypothesis. It

 

MATERIALS AND METHODS

This section should contain enough information so that someone could repeat the experiments.  This section is written in past tense because you have already done the experiment. It should be written in narrative form, NOT as a list of materials as in a laboratory manual.  Be sure to include levels of treatment, number of samples, and controls.  If you are working with a particular organism include the full scientific name and the sex of the organism if that information is relevant. If you used computer software or a particular statistical test, include that information as well.

 

It is often best to start your manuscript by writing the Materials and Methods section.  The writing is straightforward and concise and you will be reminded of the details of the work.

 

RESULTS

The Results section consists of at least three components:  1) one or two sentences reminding the reader about the nature of the research, 2) one or more paragraphs that describe the results, 3) figures (graphs, diagrams, pictures) and/or tables that display summary results.  You should think clearly about the best way to represent your results in tables or figures, and that data should be discussed in narrative form in the text.  Your writing should concentrate on general trends and differences as opposed to trivial details.

 

The results section is also written in past tense, since you have already done the work.  Be sure that tables and figures are referred to in numerical order in the text, and always write out the word Figure or Table; for example “As seen in Figure 1…” or “Blah blah blah (Figure 1).”  If possible place each figure or table at the end of the paragraph in which it is cited.

 

Report your data as accurately and simply as possible.  Do not report what you expected to happen or whether your data supported your hypothesis.  Do not discuss the meaning of your results in this section.  Do not critique your results.  Save any interpretations and speculations for the discussion section.

 

When writing the results, it is often best to compose the tables and figures first, before writing the text. Do not present raw data in the Results; present summary data when possible.

 

Guidelines on Figures and Tables

Figures
Figures can be graphs, illustrations, or photos. Each figure should have a caption below it. A caption should contain a Figure number (e.g., Figure 1.), a brief title (not on the figure itself), and a description of the illustration. Number figures consecutively, in accordance with their appearance in the text. Keep text in the illustrations themselves to a minimum. Explain all symbols and abbreviations used in the caption.

Tables
Use tables when the information cannot be represented in a figure. Each table should have a Table number (e.g., Table 1.) and a brief title above the table body. Number tables consecutively, in accordance with their appearance in the text. If needed, place footnotes to tables below the table body and indicate them with superscript symbols if appropriate. Be sparing in the use of tables and ensure that the data presented in tables do not duplicate results described elsewhere in the article. Do not divide tables into two or more parts.

 

DISCUSSION

In the discussion section you will analyze and interpret the results of your experiment.  Simply restating the results is NOT an interpretation.  The Discussion should provide a context for understanding the significance of the results.  Explain why you observed these results and how these results contribute to our knowledge.  Your results will either support or reject your hypothesis – be sure to state which.  Note that the word prove is never appropriate in scientific writing.  State your conclusions in this area.

 

The discussion should flow from narrow (your results and interpretation) to broad (connect your results back to the bigger question and the previous work that has been done).  Some guidelines for organizing your discussion:

  • Restate your question and hypothesis, and summarize the results
  • State whether you results did or did not confirm your predictions and whether they support your hypothesis or not.
  • Discuss any problems you had or weaknesses in the experimental design.  How would you improve the experiment?
  • Relate your specific results to the broad topic that was introduced in the introduction.  How do your results fit in with what was already known?  What is the significance of your results?

 

LITERATURE CITED

This section lists all articles or books cited in your report. It is not the same as a bibliography, which simply lists references regardless of whether they were cited in the paper. The listing should be alphabetized by the last names of the authors. All references and citations should be formatted in the format of the journal Animal Behaviour. See examples for this format below:

 

Examples:

Reference to a journal article:

Buttelmann, D., Carpenter, M., Call, J., & Tomasello, M. (in press). Chimpanzees, Pan troglodytes,         recognize successful actions, but fail to imitate them. Animal Behaviour. Retrieved from             http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.anbehav.2013.07.015

Robinson, M. H., & Robinson, B. (1970). The stabilimentum of the orb web spider, Argiope           argentata: an improbable defense against predators. Canadian Entomologist, 102, 641-   645.

Note that journal titles in the reference list should be written in full.

 

Reference to a book:

Bailey, N. J. (1981). Statistical methods in biology (2nd ed.). London, U.K.: Unibooks.

 

Reference to an article in an edited book:

Emlen, S. T. (1978). The evolution of cooperative behaviour in birds. In J. R. Krebs, & N. B. Davies             (Eds.),Behavioural ecology (pp. 245-281). Oxford, U.K.: Blackwell Scientific.

Ketterson, E. D., Nolan, V., Jr., Casto, J. M., Buerkle, C. A., Clotfelter, E. D., Grindstaff, J. L., et al.         (2001). Testosterone, phenotype, and fitness: a research program in evolutionary behavioral endocrinology. In A. Dawson & C. M. Chaturvedi (Eds.), Avian       endocrinology (pp.19 – 40). New Delhi, India: Narosa.

Reference to a thesis:

Bower, J. L. (2000). Acoustic interactions during naturally occurring territorial conflict in a song    sparrow neighborhood (Doctoral dissertation). Ithaca, NY: Cornell University.

Brewis, J. M. (1981). The population dynamics and growth of the freshwater crayfish        Austvopotamobius pallipes in an aqueduct in Northumbria (Doctoral thesis). Durham, U.K.:     Durham University. Retrieved from http://etheses.dur.ac.uk/7546/

 

For in-text citations with:
(a) One or two authors: give each author’s surname and the year of publication.
(b) Three to five authors: give each author’s surname and the year of publication at first mention; at subsequent mention, give the first author’s surname followed by “et al.” and the year of publication. (exception: when two or more sources shorten to the same form (i.e. they have the same primary author but different multiple coauthors), list as many of the coauthors’ surnames as needed to distinguish between the sources, followed by a comma and ‘et al.’: Zuur, Ieno, et al., 2009; Zuur, Walker, et al., 2009).
(c) Six or more authors: give the first author’s surname followed by “et al.” and the year of publication (but see exception above).

Note that ‘et al.’ is not in italics. Use a comma to separate the author from the date. Use lower-case letters to distinguish between two papers by the same authors in the same year (e.g. Packer, 1979a, 1979b). When two or more primary authors have the same surname, include the primary author’s initials in all text citations (A. T. Smith & Ivins, 1987; F. V. Smith & Bird, 1964). List multiple citations in alphabetical, then chronological, order (e.g. Arnold, 1981a, 1981b; Halliday, 1978; Nussey et al., 2011; Sih, in press-a, in press-b; Zuur, Ieno, Walker, Saveliev, & Smith, 2009), using a semicolon to separate each reference. In running text, use ‘and’ instead of ‘&’ before the final name in a multiple-author citation: ‘as described in Smith and Jones (2013)’.

General Comments on Style:

·         Avoid extensive use the first person (I or we) in writing. Keep your writing impersonal, in the third person. Instead of saying, “We weighed the frogs and put them in a glass jar,” write, “The frogs were weighed and put in a glass jar.

  • Scientific is professional, impersonal, and concise.  Your audience is your peers, and other scientists.  Write in a professional and knowledgeable way.
  • Use past tense in the Abstract, Materials and Methods and Results. Use present tense when relating the background information as you refer to other investigator’s published work.  Previously published work is considered established in the present body of knowledge.  Future tense is sometimes used in the Discussion section when speaking of work that will yet be done.
  • Be consistent in the use of tense throughout a paragraph. Do not switch between past and present tense.
  • When referring to previous research, NEVER use quotes.  Summarize the work from another source in your own words.
  • All scientific names (genus and species) must be italicized. The genus is capitalized; the specific epithet is lowercase.  For example: Drosophila melanogaster
  • Use the metric system of measurements.
  • Numbers should be written as numerals when they are greater than ten or when they are associated with measurements; for example, 6 mm or 2 g but two explanations of six factors. When one list includes numbers over and under ten, all numbers in the list may be expressed as numerals; for example, 17 sunfish, 13 bass, and 2 trout. Never start a sentence with numerals. Spell all numbers beginning sentences.
  • Clearly label each section, placing the title of the section (Abstract, Introduction etc) against the left margin on a separate line.  It is helpful to bold these.  Each section does not begin a new page but continues in order.
  • Avoid the use of slang and the overuse of contractions.
  • Note that the word “data” is plural.  Datum is singular.
  • Remember that results cannot “prove” the hypothesis, but rather they may “support” or “fail to support” the hypothesis.
  • Carefully PROOFREAD your manuscript, even if you have spell checked it on the computer.  Better yet, take it to the writing center and have them help you with spelling and grammar.

 

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